Fuels and Biofuels

AUTHOR'S: G. S. Vijayalakshmi, V. Meena Devi and P. Nagendra Prasad
PUBLISHER: Agrobios (India)
ISBN: 9788177543155
YEAR: 2007 - First Edition
PAGES: 274
SIZE: 14 X 21 X 2 cm.
BINDING: Hard
LANGUAGE: English

ABOUT THE BOOK: Energy plays an important role in the development of the country. The world's energy consumption is estimated to be 3.36 x 1020 J per annum and is projected to increase to up to 6.3 x 1020 J in the year 2050. Due to this high demand, energy shortage poses specific risks on the transportation sector and some industries that are dependent on liquid fuels such as diesel. This considerable demand for petroleum also implies significant levels of air pollution. Continued use of petroleum sourced fuels is now widely recognized as unsustainable because of depleting supplies and the contribution of these fuels to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the environment. Renewable, carbon neutral, transport fuels are necessary for environmental and economic sustainability. Biodiesel derived from oil crops is a potential renewable and carbon neutral alternative to petroleum fuels. Using an alternative fuel is one of the options that could possibly solve these environmental problems. Different biofuels were already developed and used in many parts of the world and the most popular is the biodiesel, which is an alternative to petroleum diesel.
Extensive research and demonstration projects have shown that biodiesel can be used pure or in blends with conventional diesel fuel in unmodified diesel engines. Interest in biodiesel has been expanding recently due to government incentives and high petroleum prices. Biodiesel occupies a prominent position among the alternatives to conventional petrodiesel fuel owing to various technical and economic factors. It is obtained by reacting the parent vegetable oil or fat with an alcohol (transesterification) in the presence of a catalyst to give the corresponding monoalkyl esters, which are defined as biodiesel. Because of the nature of the starting material, the production process, and subsequent handling, various factors can influence biodiesel fuel quality. Biodiesel steadily gaining interest and significance in light of recent developments such as the upsurge in petroleum prices and the implementation of financial incentives for its use. With the increasing interest and use, the assurance of fuel properties and quality has become of paramount interest to the successful commercialization and market acceptance of biodiesel.
    Our Honorable President Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and many other scientists mentioned the necessary of biofuels for our country. Among the various sources of biofuels, biodiesel plays an important role because of the availability of feedstock, production steps and it’s safe to the environment. Biodiesel is a hot topic in today's research. This book highlights more about the biodiesel, its sources, production, various standards, fuel properties of biodiesel with ASTM standards, fuel policy and the environmental effect on biodiesel. This book will be useful for U.G, P.G. students and Research Scholars and provides the fundamental knowledge about energy, non-renewable and renewable energy.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR'S:
1. Dr. G. S. Vijayalakshmi (b August 20, 1946), is Professor of Environmental Sciences at Sri Paramakalayani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Alwarkurichi (TN). She has 39 years of research and 30 years (UG and PG) of teaching experience. Her Doctoral thesis was on Hydrobiology of a tropical estuary at Centre for Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Protonovo-Annamalai University and Post Doctoral Work on Composite Fish Culture using Biogas Plant Effluents. She has 165 of research publications and 3 books to her credit. She is serving as Member of Governing Body, Madurai Community College, Faculty of Science, M.S. University, Board of Studies, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women (Deemed University) and Honorary Member, Professional Women's Advisory Board, American Biographical Institute, U.S.A. She has been awarded by Learned Bodies the important are Excellence award by Thenkasi Rotary Club (1991), women of the year award (1997-1998 -American Biographical Institute, U.S.A.), distinguished women Award (1998-American Biographical Institute, U.S.A.), best Co-ordinator award (2001) by department of Environment, Tamilnadu, Popularization of Science Award (2002) TNSCST, Government of Tamilnadu, Lifetime Achievement Award (2003), United Writers Association, Chennai.

2. V.N. Meena Devi (b. September 06, 1982) is working as Research scholar at Sri Paramakalayani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Alwarkurichi (TN) and Lecturer in Dept. of Physics at the same institute.

3. Dr. P. Nagendra Prasad (b. May 20, 1954) is Reader and Head, Sri Paramakalayani College, Alwarkurichi (TN). He has 30 years of research and 22 years of teaching experience. He did Ph. D. on Medicinal plants from Centre for Advance Study in Botany, University of Madras, Chennai. He has 25 research papers to his credit.

CONTENTS:
Praface
Introduction
1. ENERGY
    a. Different forms of Energy
    b. Potential and Kinetic Energy
        i. Potential Energy
        ii. Chemical Energy
            1. Stored Mechanical Energy
            2. Nuclear Energy
            3. Gravitational Energy
        iii. Kinetic Energy
            1. Electrical Energy
            2. Radiant Energy
            3. Thermal Energy
            4. Motion Energy
            5. Sound Energy
    c. Law of Conservation of Energy
        i. Measurements for Energy
    d. Using British Thermal Units (BTU) to compare Energy
    e. BTU Content of Common Energy Units
2. SOURCES OF ENERGY
    a. Non-renewable Energy
    b. Renewable Energy:
3. RENEWABLE ENERGY
    Alternate Sources of Energy
    Sources of Renewable Energy
    a. Solar Energy
        i. Photovoltaic Energy
        ii. Solar Thermal Heat
        iii. Solar Thermal Power Plants
        iv. Uses
    b. Geothermal Energy
    c. Tidal and Wave Energy
        i. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
        ii. Tidal Energy
        iii. Wave Energy
    d. Wind Energy
        i. Energy from Wind
        ii. The History of Windmills
        iii. Wind Power Plants
        iv. Wind and the Environment
    e. Hydroelectric Energy
        i. Mini or Micro Hydro Power
        ii. Hydropower and the Environment
    f. Biomass Energy
        i. Wood and Wood Waste
        ii. Municipal Solid Waste, Landfill Gas, and Biogas
        iii. Biofuels
        iv. Biomass and the Environment
            1. Burning Wood
            2. Burning Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) or Wood Waste
            3. Collecting Landfill Gas or Biogas
            4. Ethanol
            5. Biodiesel
4. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
    a. Petroleum
    b. Chemistry of Petroleum
    c. Crude Oil is made into different Fuels
    d. Blue Barrel (bbl)
        i. Formation
            1. Biogenic Theory
            2. Abiogenic Theory
        ii. Extraction of Crude Oil
        iii. History of Petroleum Production
        iv. Alternate means of Producing Oil
        v. Future of Oil
            1. Production, Consumption and Alternatives
        vi. Environmental Effects
        vii. Pricing
        viii. Top Petroleum Producing Countries
        ix. Coal
        x. Origin of Coal
        xi. Etymology and Folklore of Coal
            1. Early usage of Coal
        xii. Composition of Coal
        xiii. Types of Coal
            1. Lignite
            2. Sub-bituminous Coal
            3. Bituminous Coal
            4. Anthracite
        xiv. Energy Density
        xv. Coal Conversion Processes
            1. Gasification
            2. Liquification
        xvi. Uses of Coal
            1. Coking and use of Coke
            2. For making Steel
            3. For Industry
        xvii. Coal Fires
        xviii. Coal and the Environment
            1. Harmful effects of Coal Burning
        xix. World Coal Reserves
        xx. Gas
        xxi. Formation
        xxii. Source of Natural Gas
            1. Measurement for Natural Gas
            2. Use of Natural Gas
        xxiii. Natural Gas and the Environment
        xxiv. Nuclear Energy
        xxv. Nuclear Energy Is Energy from Atoms
        xxvi. Nuclear Fuel - Uranium
        xxvii. Types of Reactors
        xxviii. Nuclear Power and the Environment
5. BIOFUEL
    a. Classes of Biofuel
        i. Solid Biofuels
        ii. Liquid Biofuels
        iii. Gaseous Biofuels
    b. Sources of Biofuel
        i. Main Source of Biofuel
            1. Botafuels
            2. Zoofuels
        ii. Biomass
            1. Landfill Sites
            2. Landfill Gas Analyzer
            3. Methane Digester
            4. Advantage and Disadvantage
        iii. Pyrolysis of Biomass
    c. Production of Biofuel
    d. History of Biofuel
    e. Types of High Volume Industrial Biomass on Earth
        i. Biologically Produced Alcohols
        ii. Biologically Produced Gases
        iii. Biologically Produced Gases from Wastes
        iv. Biologically Produced Oils
        f. Ethanol
            i. Ethanol made from Corn and other Crops
            ii. Ethanol as a Transportation Fuel
            iii. E85 Ethanol
                1. Flexible or Alternative Fuel Vehicles
        iv. Ethanol and the Environment
    g. Direct Biofuel
    h. Direct Electricity Generation
        i. Use on Farms
        ii. Home Use
            iii. Problems and Solutions
6. BIO-DIESEL
    a. Main Sources of Biodiesel
        i. Botadiesel
        ii. Zoodiesel
    b. Other Candidates for Biodiesel
        i. Bioethanol
        ii. Biomethanol
        iii. BioETBE (ethyl-tertio-butyl-ether)
        iv. BioMTEB (methyl- tertio-butyl-ether)
        v. Bio-Dimethyl Ether (Bio-DME)
    c. Biodiesel
    d. Description
    e. Historical Background
    f. Biodiesel Production by Transesterification
        i. History of Bio Lipid Transesterification
        ii. Transesterification
        iii. Transesterification Chemistry
        iv. Steps in the Process
            1. Purification
            2. Neutralization of Free Fatty Acids
            3. Transesterification
            4. Workup
            5. Reaction
            6. Base Catalyzed Mechanism
    g. Process
    h. Applications
    i. Usage
    j. Gelling
    k. Water Contamination
7. LIST OF VEGETABLE OILS
    a. Classification of Vegetable Oil
        i. Edible Oil
        ii. Nut Oils
        iii. Food Supplements Oils
        iv. Other Edible Oils
    b. Oils used for Biofuel
        i. Edible Oils used as Biofuel
        ii. Non Edible Oils used only as Biofuel
        iii. Drying Oils and other Oils
8. BIODIESEL FROM VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS
    a. Plant Oils Used for Bio-diesel
    b. List of Oils used for Biodiesel
        i. Algae as Bio-diesel
        ii. Artichoke and Biodiesel
        iii. Canola Oil as Bio-diesel
        iv. Castor Oil as Bio-diesel
        v. Coconut Oil as Biodiesel
        vi. Corn Oil as Bio-diesel
        vii. Cottonseed Oil as Biodiesel
        viii. Flax Oil as Biodiesel
        ix. Hemp Oil as Bio-diesel
        x. Jatropha Oil as Bio-diesel
        xi. Jojoba Oil as Biodiesel
        xii. Karanj Plant {Pongamia pinnatd) as Biodiesel
        xiii. Kukui Nut Oil as Biodiesel
        xiv. Milk Bush/Pencil Bush {Euphorbia tirucalli) as Biodiesel
        xv. Mustard Oil
        xvi. Neem Oil as Biodiesel
        xvii. Biodiesel from Olive Oil
        xviii. Palm Oil as Bio-diesel
        xix. Peanut Oil as Biodiesel
        xx. Radish Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxi. Rapeseed Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxii. Rice Bran Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxiii. Safflower Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxiv. Sesame Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxv. Soybean Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxvi. Sunflower Oil as Bio-diesel
        xxvii. Tung Oil as Biodiesel
        xxviii. Waste Vegetable Oil as Biodiesel
9. PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL
    a. Vegetable Oils (Derivatives of Triglycerides) as Diesel Fuels
        i. Pyrolysis
        ii. Micro-emulsification
        iii. Dilution
        iv. Transesterification
    b. Manufacturing Process for Biodiesel
    c. Industrial Scale Production of Biodiesel
    d. Biodiesel Production and Quality
        i. Mixing of Alcohol and Catalyst
        ii. Reaction
        iii. Separation
        iv. Alcohol Removal
        v. Glycerin Neutralization
        vi. Methyl Ester Wash
        vii. Product Quality and Registration
    e. Raw Material and its Quality for the Production of Bio-diesel
        i. Vegetable Oil
        ii. Animal Fats
        iii. Waste Vegetable Oils
        iv. Esters of Vegetable Oil
        v. Oil Quality
        vi. Alcohol
        vii. Catalyst
            1. Biocatalyst
    f. Process Variables in Transesterification
    g. Oil Temperature
    h. Reaction Temperature
    i. Ratio of Alcohol to Oil
    j. Catalyst type and Concentration
    k. Mixing Intensity
    l. Purity of Reactants
10. GENERAL ASPECTS OF TRANSESTERIFICATION
    a. Transesterification of Vegetable Oils
        i. Acid-Catalyzed Processes
        ii. Base-Catalyzed Processes
        iii. Lipase-Catalyzed Processes
        iv. Non-Ionic Base-Catalyzed Processes
        v. Heterogeneously Catalyzed Processes
11. FUEL PROPERTIES
    a. Methods for Testing Fuel Properties of Biodiesel based on ASTM Standards
    b. ASTM D 93 - Flash-Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester
    c. ASTM D 97 - Pour Point of Petroleum Products
    d. ASTM D 130 - Detection of Copper Corrosion from Petroleum Products by the Copper Strip Tarnish Test
    e. ASTM D 240 - Heat of Combustion of Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter
    f. ASTM D 445 - Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids
    g. ASTM D 482 - Ash from Petroleum Products
    h. ASTM D 524 - Ramsbottom Carbon Residue of Petroleum Products
    i. ASTM D 613 - Cetane Number of Diesel Fuel Oil
    j. ASTM D 664 - Acid Number of Petroleum Products by Potentiometric Titration (for dark, opaque liquids)
    k. ASTM D 971 - Interfacial Tension of Oil against Water by the Ring Method
    l. ASTM D 1091 - Standard Test Methods for Phosphorus in Lubricating Oils and Additives
    m. ASTM D 1094 - Water Reaction of Aviation Fuels
    n. ASTM D 1160 - Distillation of Petroleum Products at Reduced Pressure
    o. ASTM D 1298 - Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), or API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and Liquid
    p. Petroleum Products by Hydrometer Method
    q. ASTM D 1322 - Smoke Point of Kerosene and Aviation Turbine Fuel
    r. ASTM D 1796 - Water and Sediment in Fuel Oils by the Centrifuge Method (Laboratory Procedure)
    s. ASTM D 1959 - Iodine Value of Drying Oils and Fatty Acids
    t. ASTM D 2274 - Standard Test Method for Oxidation Stability of Distillate Fuel Oil (Accelerated Method)
    u. ASTM D 2500 - Cloud Point of Petroleum Products
    v. ASTM D2622 - Test Method for Sulphur in Petroleum Products by X-Ray Spectrometry
    w. ASTM D 2624 - Electrical Conductivity of Aviation and Distillate Fuels
    x. ASTM D 3231 - Standard Test Method for Phosphorus in Gasoline
    y. ASTM D 3241 - Thermal Oxidation Stability of Aviation Turbine Fuels
    z. ASTM D 3242 - Acidity in Aviation Turbine Fuel (Total Acid Number)
    aa. ASTM D 4539 - Filterability of Diesel Fuels by Low-Temperature Flow Test (LTFT)
    bb. ASTM D 4629 - Trace Nitrogen in Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Syringe/Inlet Oxidative Combustion
    cc. and Chemiluminescence Detection
    dd. ASTM D 5191 - Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Mini Method)
    ee. ASTM D 5291 - Instrumental Determination of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen in Petroleum Products and
    ff. Lubricants
    gg. ASTM D 6078 - Standard Test Method for Evaluating Lubricity of Diesel Fuels by the Scuffing Load Ball-on-
    hh. Cylinder Lubricity Evaluator (SLBOCLE)
    ii. ASTM D 6217 - Standard Test Method for Particulate Contamination in Middle Distillate Fuels by Laboratory
    jj. Filtration
    kk. Christina Plane method
    ll. Total Fatty Acids
12. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT BIODIESEL
    a. Kinematic Viscosity
    b. Density
    c. Energy Content of Diesel and Biodiesel
    d. Calorific Value or Heat of Combustion
    e. Melt Point or Pour Point
    f. Cloud Point
    g. Cold Filter Plugging Point
    h. Flash Point (FP)
    i. Acid Value
    j. Iodine Value (IV)
    k. Aniline Point/Cetane Number (CN)
    l. Stability
        i. Oxidation Stability
        ii. Thermal Stability
        iii. Storage Stability
    m. Conradson Carbon Residue
    n. Phosphorous Content
    o. Ash Percentage or Sulphated Ash Content
    p. Sulphur Percentage
    q. Potassium Percentage
    r. Ester Content
    s. Free Glycerol
    t. Total Glycerol
    u. Total Contamination
        i. Dissolved Water Content
        ii. Free Water and Sediment Content
    v. Corrosion
    w. Lubricity
13. GLYCEROL - BIODIESEL BYPRODUCT
    a. Glycerol and Triglycerides
    b. Glycerol and Biodiesel
        i. Purification
        ii. Utilization of by-products - Glycerol
        iii. Application
            1. Personal Care
            2. Food and Beverages
            3. Drugs
            4. Polyether Polyols
            5. Alkyl Resin (Plastics) and Cellophane
            6. Absolute Alcohol
        7. Other Applications
    c. Advantages of Biodiesel
    d. Biodiesel as a Transportation Fuel
    e. Biodiesel Fuel has the following Advantages
14. BIODIESEL AND THE ENVIRONMENT
    a. Biodiesel is a Renewable, Domestic Fuel and offers more Environmental Benefits
        i. Biodiesel is Biodegradable
        ii. Biodiesel is a Safer Alternative to use than Petroleum Diesel
        iii. Biodiesel will not Harm Fish - Easier on Marine Environment
        iv. Biodiesel has No Sulphur
        v. Biodiesel is "User-Friendly" and Exhaust is Less Offensive
        vi. Biodiesel Reduces Emissions (Particulate Matter) Significantly
    b. Toxicity
        i. Biodiesel Operates in Conventional Engines
        ii. Biodiesel has Higher Lubricity
        iii. Biodiesel has a Full ASTM Fuel Specification
        iv. Indian Railways and Environment
    c. Environmental and Health Effects
    d. Storage, Handling and Distribution
15. BIODIESEL STANDARDS
    a. General Aspects of Standardization
    b. Guiding Principle for the Development of National Biodiesel Standards
    c. The Levels of Standardization
        i. Specifications and Quality Standards for Bio-fuels
            1. Fuel Quality Standards (FQS) Act
            2. National Standards
            3. European Standards
            4. International Standards
            5. ASTM International Standard
            6. The American Soybean Association
            7. The National Biodiesel Board
    d. Biodiesel and Standard Diesel
    e. Mixing and Storage of Biodiesel
    f. Impact on Engine Performance
        i. Engine Studies
        ii. Engine Warranties
        iii. Emissions Reductions
    g. Biodiesel and Air Pollution
    h. Vehicle Emissions and Engine Operability
    i. Standards
    j. ASTM Standards for Biodiesel
16. BIOFUEL POLICY
    a. Environmental Protection Agency
    b. History of EPA
    c. Mission of EPA
    d. Efforts of EPA
        i. Develop and Enforce Regulations
        ii. Offer Financial Assistance
        iii. Perform Environmental Research
        iv. Sponsor Voluntary Partnerships and Programmes
        v. Further Environmental Education
    e. EPA Registration
    f. Testing Requirements
        i. Tier 1
        ii. Tier 2
        iii. Tier 3
    g. Special Provisions
        i. Small Business Provisions
    h. NBB Health Effects Data
    i. NBB Membership
    j. NBB Fuel Accreditation
17. BIOFUEL AND BIODIESEL IN INDIA
    a. Benefits from the Use of Biofuels in India
        i. Reduced Emission of Harmful Pollutants
        ii. Increased Employment
        iii. Energy Security and Decreased Dependence on Oil Imports
        iv. Increase in Butrients to Soil, Decrease in Soil Erosion and Land Degradation
        v. Improved Social Well-being
        vi. Good Fuel Properties
        vii. Feedstock for India's Biodiesel
        viii. Biodiesel will have a Pronounced Impact on Edible Oil Prices
    b. Biodiesel Development in India
    c. Price Policy for BioDiesel
    d. Field Trails with Biodiesel
    e. Biofuel Policy
    f. The Current Status of Commercial Biodiesel Production in India
    g. President of India Planted Jatropha Saplings in Mughal Gardens of Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace)
    h. Major Players in Biodiesel Field
18. BIODIESEL AROUND THE WORLD
    a. Austria
    b. Australia
    c. Brazil
    d. Belgium
    e. Canada
    f. Costa Rica
    g. Czech Republic
    h. Estonia
    i. Europe
    j. Finland
    k. France
    l. Germany
    m. India
    n. Israel
    o. Ireland
    p. Italy
    q. Luxembourg
    r. Malaysia
    s. Norway
    t. Papua New Guinea - Bouganville
    u. Portugal
    v. Spain
    w. Singapore
    x. Sweden
    y. Taiwan (Republic of China)
    z. Thailand
    aa. United Kingdom
    bb. United States
        i. Present use of Biodiesel in the US
        ii. US Market Summary
19. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ON ETHANOL FUEL AND BIODIESEL
REFERENCES