Methods in Environmental Analysis Water Soil and Air
ABOUT THE BOOK: Environment and development are the two sides of a coin.
Developmental activities e.g., industrial, agricultural, transportation,
constructional work, etc., cause degradation and drastic changes in every
component of environment namely, hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (soil) and
atmosphere (air) through pollution. In order to recognise and predict hazardous
effects of pollutants, the scientific monitoring of these environmental
components is essential. For this purpose, the quantitative characterization of
water, soil and air is the prerequisite. It gives us an idea about the
seriousness of pollution problem in these three environmental components. This
would also help in focussing on the extent to which pollution control is
required and generate real concern among policy planners.
Books are available on different aspects of pollution and environmental
engineering, but literature regarding methods of quantification of pollutants
and characterization of water, soil and air is meager. This text is a
compilation of some tested and widely used analytical methods of characterizing
water, soil and air from environmental pollution point of view. The text is
divided into sixteen chapters and two appendices dealing with procedures
quantifying various physical, chemical and biological aspects. The introductory
part of water, soil and air as a component of environment is also included in a
simple and explanatory manner to give better insight of the subject.
Hopefully, the technical information contained herein will prove useful to
students, teachers, scientists and analysts studying/working in the field of
biological and applied sciences, more specifically, in the fields of
Environmental Science, Ecology, Plant Science, Forestry, Soil Science, Agronomy,
Horticulture, Geology and Hydrology.
AUTHOR: P. K. Gupta | ISBN: 9788177543087 | YEAR: 2009 | PAGES: 443 | SIZE: 14 X 22 X 2.5 cm. | BINDING: Hard | LANGUAGE: English
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Dr. P. K. Gupta did his M.Sc. (Ag.) Soil Science from
University of Udaipur, Udaipur in 1980. He obtained Ph.D. degree from Rajasthan
Agricultural University. Bikaner in the field of soil fertility during the year
1 992. Dr. Gupta started his career as lecturer in Soil Science at University of
Udaipur. During his service career he has worked as Asstt. Professor, Associate
Professor and Head Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Bikaner,
Professor Soil Science, ARS, Kota. He has also served Rajasthan Agriculture
Drainage Research Project funded by CIDA as a consultant.
At present Dr. Gupta is Zonal Director Research at Agricultural Research Station
(Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology), Kota.
Dr. Gupta has published more than 50 research papers and technical articles in
various journals and magazines of national and international repute. He has also
written books on, Vermicomposting for Sustainable Agriculture; Soil, Plant,
Water and Fertilizer Analysis and A Handbook of Soil Fertilizer and Manure.
CONTENTS:
1. THE ENVIRONMENT
a) Micro-environment of Microclimate
b) Environmental Pollution and Pollutant
c) Needs for Environmental Analysis
2. WATER AS A COMPONENT OF ENVIRONMENT
a) Sources of Water
i. Atmospheric Water
ii. Surface Water
iii. Stored Water
iv. Ground Water
b) Human use of Water
c) Water Pollution
i. Water Pollutants
1. Origin of
Water Pollutants
2. Sources of
Water Pollutants
d) Effects of Water Pollution
i. Physico-Chemical Effects
ii. Biological Effects
iii. Toxic Effects
iv. Pathogenic Effects
e) Physical, Chemical and Biological Characteristics of Water
f) Water Quality Related Problems in Public Health
i. Environment and Agriculture
ii. Drinking Water Standards
iii. Bacteriological Standards
iv. Irrigation Standards
1. Salinity
2. Water
Infiltration Rate
3. Specific
ion Toxicity
4.
Miscellaneous
5. Problems
Related to High Sodium Concentration
v. Stream Standards
vi. Effluent Standards
g) Chemicals and Biological Parameters for Evaluation of
Aquatic Environment
i. Chemical Parameters
1. Redox
Potential
2. Total
Dissolved Solids
3. Dissolved
Oxygen
4. Calcium
plus Magnesium (Total Hardness)
5. Sodium and
Potassium
6. Carbonates
Bicarbonates or Total Alkalinity
7. Residual
Sodium Carbonate (RSC)
8. Chloride
9. Sulphate
10.
Carbohydrate
11. Boron
12. Free
Carbon Dioxide
13. Fluoride
14. Hydrogen
Sulphide
15. Nitrogen
16. Ammonia
17. Nitrite
18. Nitrate
19. Organic
Nitrogen (Total, Dissolved and Particulate)
20. Total
Phosphorus
21. Silica
22. Oil and
Grease
23.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
24. Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD)
ii. Biological Parameters
1.
Macrophytes
2.
Phytoplankton
3.
Zooplankton
4. Benthos
5. Biotecton
(Periphyton)
6.
Saprotrophs (Bacteria and Fungi)
7. Primary
Productivity
3. WATER: COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
a) Ruttner Water Sampler
b) Von Dorn Water Sampler
c) Dussart-flask Water Sampler
d) Thermos-flask Water Sampler
e) Pump Samplers
f) Collection of Water Samples for Irrigation Quality
g) Handling and Preservation of Water Sample
h) Collection of Biological Matter of Water
4. WATER ANALYSIS: PHYSICAL
a) Colour
i. Platinum - Cobalt Method
ii. Forel-Ule Colour Scale Method
b) Movement
c) Temperature
i. Measurement of Surface Temperature
ii. Measurement of Subsurface
Temperature
iii. Thermosflask Sampler Method
iv. Reversing Thermometer Method
d) Odour and Taste
e) Transparency
i. Secchi Disc Method
1. Other
Method
f) Turbidity
5. WATER ANALYSIS: CHEMICAL
a) pH
i. Electrical Conductivity (Soluble
Salts Concentration)
b) Redox Potential
c) Total Dissolved Solids
d) Dissolved Oxygen
i. Oxygen Meter Method
ii. Winkler's Method
e) Calcium by Versenate (EDTA) Method
f) Calcium plus Magnesium (Total Hardness)
g) Sodium and Potassium
h) Determination of Carbonates Bicarbonates or Total
i. Alkalinity (Richards 1954)
i) Chloride
j) Sulphate
k) Boron
l) Free Carbon Dioxide
m) Total Carbon Dioxide
n) Fluoride
o) Hydrogen Sulphide
i. Idometric Method
p) Nitrogen
i. Ammonia
1.
Colorimetric Method
2. Volumetric
Method
ii. Nitrite
1. EDTA
Method
iii. Nitrate
1. Phenol
Disulphonic Acid Method
2. Total
Organic Nitrogen (TON)
3. Dissolved
Organic Nitrogen (DON)
4.
Particulate Organic Nitrogen (PON)
iv. Phosphorus (Ammonium Molybdate -
Ascorbic acid)
q) Silica
r) Determination of Trace Elements/Heavy Metals
s) Total Carbohydrate
t) Oil and Grease
u) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
v) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
i. Photosynthetic Pigments
1. Estimation
of Total Chlorophyll Content and Ratio of Chlorophyll a and b in Macrophytes
ii. Estimation of Carotenoids
iii. Chemical Separation of
Chloroplast Pigments
iv. Column Chromatography of
Photosynthetic Pigments
v. Estimation of Chlorophyll in
Phytoplankton
6. WATER ANALYSIS: BIOLOGICAL
a) Macrophytes
i. Collection of Macrophytes
b) Biomass, Moisture, Ash, and Organic matter Estimation of
Macrophytes
c) Phytoplankton
i. Collection and Preservation of
Phytoplankton
1.
Sedimentation Method
ii. Measurement of Phytoplankton
Population
1.
Sedgwick-Rafter Cell Method
2.
Measurement of Phytoplankton Biomass
d) Zooplankton
i. Collection and Preservation of
Zooplankton
1.
Measurement of Zooplankton Population
2.
Measurement of Zooplankton Biomass
e) Biotecton (Periphyton)
i. Collection and Preservation of
Biotecton
1.
Measurement of Biotecton Population
2.
Measurement of Biotecton Biomass
f) Benthos
i. Collection and Preservation of
Benthos
ii. Identification of Benthos
iii. Measurement of Benthos
Population
iv. Measurement of Biomass
g) Saprotrophs (Bacteria and Fungi)
i. Bacteria
1. Polulation
Measurement: Standard Plate Count (SPC)
h) Fungi
i) Primary Productivity
j) Macrophytic Productivity
k) Phytoplankton Productivity
l) Sedimentation
7. SOIL AS A COMPONENT OF ENVIRONMENT
a) Soils: An Introduction
i. Modern Concept
ii. Parent Material
iii. Regolith
iv. Top Soil or Surface Soil
v. Subsoil
vi. Bedrock
vii. Mineral Soil
viii. Organic Soil
ix. Pedon
b) Composition of Soil
i. Soil Separates (Mineral Matter)
1. Physical
Nature of Soil Separates
ii. Soil Organic Matter
1. Humus
2. Humus and
Soil Structure
c) Soil Formation
d) The Soil Profile and its Layers
e) Soil Physical Properties
i. Soil Texture
ii. Soil Structure
1. Structure
Class
2. Types of
Structure
iii. Soil Density
1. Particles
Density
2. Bulk
Density
iv. Soil Porosity and Permeability
v. Soil Air
1.
Composition of Soil Air
2. Rate of
Oxygen Exchange or Oxygen Diffusion Rate
3.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh or Redox Potential)
4. Aeration
and Plant Growth
vi. Soil Temperature
1. Effect of
soil Temperature on Crop Growth
vii. Soil Colour
viii. Soil Water
1. Water
Retention Forces
2. Soil Water
Energy Concept
3. Soil Water
Potential
4. Soil Water
Classification
ix. Physical Classification
x. Biological Classification
1. Soil
Moisture Constants
2. When
Plants Most Need Water?
f) Soil Colloids and Chemical Properties
i. Inorganic Colloids (Clay)
ii. Organic Colloids (Humus)
1. Cation
Exchange
2.
Development of Charge
3. Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC)
4. Anion
Exchange and Adsorption
g) The Soil Reaction (pH)
i. Importance of Soil pH
ii. Buffering in Soils
h) Soil Biology and Ecology
i) Soil Factors For Plant Growth
i. Soil Fertility
ii. Soil Productivity
j) Essential Plant Nutrients
i. Classification of Essential Plant
Nutrients
ii. Nutrient Availability
iii. Forms of Nutrients Absorbed by
Plants,
iv. Dynamics of Nutrient Availability
k) Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
i. Other Plant Nutrients
1. Vanadium
2. Sodium
3. Silicon
ii. Multiple Deficiencies and
Nutrient Interactions
iii. Nutrient Toxicity
iv. Indicator Plants
v. Critical Limit of Nutrients
l) Concept of Soil Degradation
i. Soils v/s Land Degradation
1. Causes of
Soil Degradation
2. Problem of
Soil Degradation
3. Soil
Erosion
4. Loss of
Fertility by Mismanagement
5. Salinity /
Alkalinity
6. Acidity
7.
Waterlogging
8.
Deterioration of Soil Structure
9. Floods and
Droughts
10.
Desertification
m) Soil Pollution
i. Agricultural Pesticides
ii. Organic Waste
iii. Heavy Metals
1.
Fertilizers
2.
Radioactivity
3. Detergents
4. Acid Rain
8. SOIL - COLLECTION AND PREPARATION OF SAMPLES
a) Tools and Materials
b) Sampling for Fertility Evaluation and Fertilizer
Recommendation
c) Sampling for Soil Reclamation
d) Sampling for Garden Plantation
i. Processing and Storage of Samples
9. SOIL ANALYSIS - PHYSICAL
a) Soil Profile Study
b) Soil Horizons
i. Transition Horizons
ii. Solum
c) Examination of Soil Profile
1. Observations (Record of Field
Data)
2. Representation of Profile Data
d) Estimation of Texture
e) Field Method for Texture Determination
f) Mechanical Analysis of Soil
i. International Pipette Method
ii. Hydrometer Method
1. Triangular
Dand its use
g) Estimation of Soil Colour
h) Estimation of Soil Moisture and Soil Moisture Constants
i) Measurement of Soil Moisture
i. Gravimetric Method'.
ii. Spirit Burning Method
iii. Volumetric Method
a) By Soil Core
b) By Bulk Density of the Soil
iv. Neutron Moisture Meter
1.
Calibration
j) Determination of Soil Moisture in Relation to Soil Water
Potential
i. Measurement Devices
1. Use of
Resistance Blocks
2. Properties
of Block Units
3.
Preparation of Gypsum Blocks
4.
Standardisation and Calibration of Resistance Blocks
5.
Determination of Soil Moisture by Resistance Blocks
6.
Tensiometers
7. Filter
Paper Method
k) Measurement of Field Capacity (Field Method)
l) Determination of Aeration Pore Space, Pore Size
Distribution by Low Tension Desorption Curve and Demonstration of Hysteresis
m) Soil Density and Porosity
i. Measurement of Particle Density (Dp)
of Soil
ii. Measurement of Bulk Density (Db)
of Soil (Laboratory Method for Disturbed Soil)
iii. Core Method (for Undisturbed
Soil)
iv. Bulk Density of Partially Filled
Cores
v. Clod Method
n) Measurement of Porosity of Soil
o) Determination of Total, Capillary and Non-capillary
Porosity
p) Soil Temperature Measurement
i. Field Measurements
ii. Methods-One-Point
iii. Temperature Distribution
iv. Integrated Values
10. SOIL ANALYSIS - CHEMICAL
a) pH and Electrical Conductivity
i. pH
b) Determination of pH
i. Electric pH Meter Method
1. pH in
Saturated Soil Paste
2. pH in 1:2
Soil Water Suspension
3. pH in 1:2
Soil and Calcium Chloride Solution
4. Suspension
ii. Electrical Conductivity
c) Measurement of Electrical Conductivity
i. Saturation Extract
ii. 1:2 Soil Water Extract
d) Water Soluble Salts
e) Methods of Extraction of Soluble Salts
i. In Saturation Extract
ii. In 1:2 Soil Water Extract
f) Determination of Carbonate and Bicarbonate
g) Determination of Chloride
h) Determination of Sulphate
i) Determination of Calcium by Versenate (EDTA) Method
j) Determination of Magnesium by Versenate (EDTA) Method
k) Determination of Sodium
l) Determination of Potassium
i. Expression of Results in different
Units
ii. Some Calculation and
Interpretations
m) Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity
n) Determination of Exchangeable Sodium
o) Determination of Exchangeable Potassium
p) Determination of exchangeable Calcium and Magnesium
q) Determination of Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
r) Estimation of Available Nutrients
i. Available Nitrogen
ii. Determination of Organic Carbon
1. Walkley
and Black Rapid Titration Method
2.
Colorimetric Method for Organic Carbon
3. Modified
Wet Oxidation-redox Titration Method
4. Comments
on Bichromate Methods
iii. Determination of Mineralizable
Nitrogen
iv. Alkaline Permanganate Method (Subbiah
and Asija, 1956) Nitrate Nitrogen Extraction with 0.01 M CuSO4 Colorimetric
Determination
s) Total Nitrogen by Autoanalyzer
i. Digestion
ii. Determination
1.
Distillation (Kjeltec Auto 1030 Analyzer) Method
2.
Colorimetric (Autoanalyzer) Method
iii. Determination of Available
Phosphorus
1. Olsen's
Method or Sodium Bicarbonate Extractable P
2. Bray and
Kurtz No 1 Method (Brag and Kurtz, 1945)
iv. Determination of Available or
Exchangeable Potassium
v. Determination of Available S
vi. Determination of Available S
through Barium
1. Heat
Soluble Sulphur
2.
CaCl2-Extractable S
3.
Colorimetric Procedure for available Sulphur Estimation using Barium Chromate (Palaskar
et ah, 1981)
4. Phosphate
Extractable - S (Ensminger, 1954)
5.
Determination of Available/Exchangeable Ca and Mg
vii. EDTA Method
viii. Exchangeable Ca and Mg through
AAS
t) Micronutrients
i. Available Metalic Ions (Zn, Cu,
Fe, Mn)
1. Working
Standard Solutions
2. Available
Boron-
3. Available
Molybde-ium
4. Alcohol
for Washing of Glassware
ii. Estimation of Soil Pollutants (Cd,
Cr, Ni, and Pb)
1. Total
Sorbed Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel, and Lead
2. DTPA
Extraction for Cd and Ni (Modified From Lindsay and Norvell 1978)
iii. Acid Ammonium Oxalate
Extractable CrI
11. L SOIL ANALYSIS - BIOLOGICAL3
a) Biological Parameters
i. Estimation of Plant Population
Density
ii. Estimation of Plant Biomass
iii. Animal Population Density
Measurement
1. Random
Sampling Method
2. Direct
Count Methodi
3. Marking -
Recapture Method
iv. Estimation of Benthos Population
Density
v. Primary Productivity
b) Microbiological Analysis
c) Preparation and Inoculation of Culture Media
i. Types of Culture Media
ii. Synthetic Media
iii. The Reaction of Culture Media
d) Cultivation of Microorganisms
i. Selection of Glassware
ii. Cleaning of Glassware
iii. Preparation of Culture Medium
iv. Culture Medium for Autotrophic
Bacteria (Medium for Sulphur Oxidant)
1. Non
Synthetic Medium for Bacteria Meet Extract (or Nutrient Broth)
v. Meet Extract (or Nutrient) Agar
vi. Media for Algae
vii. Media for Fungi
viii. Method of Preparation of
Culture Medium
ix. Sterilization of Culture Medium
x. Inoculation
1. Method of
Inoculation
xi. Measurement of Growth of
Microorganisms
xii. Bacterial Counts
xiii. Methods of Viable Count
1. The
Drop-plate Method
2. Pour-plate
Method
3. Roll-tube
Method
4.
Surface-spread Method
5. Shake
Culture Method
6. Most
Probable Number (MPN)
7. Membrane
Counts
8. Viable
Counting of Viruses
9. Spore
Counts
e) Staining Techniques for Microbes
i. Types of Staining
f) Identification of Bacteria
i. Methods of Identification
ii. System for Bacterial
Identification
1. Morphology
and Staining Reactions
2. Cultural
Characters
3. Edges of
Bacterial Colonies
4.
Identification of Mixture of Bacteria in a Material
g) Enumeration and Isolation of Soil Microorganism
h) Different Media for Isolation
i. Microorganisms involved in Carbon
Transformations
ii. Microorganisms involved in
Nitrogen Transformations
iii. Microorganisms involved in
Sulfur Transformations
iv. Microorganisms involved in
Phosphate Solubilization
v. Spread Plate Counting Method
1.
Preparation of Agar Petri Plates
2.
Preparation of Soil Dilutions
3.
Preparation of Agar Spread Plates
vi. Types of Dilutions
vii. Most Probable Number Method (MPN)
i) Isolation oiRhizobium from Root Nodule
j) Cultural Tests to Distinguish Rizobia from Contaminants
i. Test I: Congo Red Test
ii. Test II: Growth in Alkaline
Medium
iii. Test III: Growth in
Glucose-peptone Agar
iv. Test IV: Ketolactose Test
k) Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
l) Harvesting and Storage of Soil and Root Samples
m) Extraction and Estimation of VAM Propagules
i. Wet-Sieving Technique (Gerdemann
and Nicolson 1963)
ii. Flotation-Bubbling Technique (Furlan
And Fortin, 1975)
iii. Flotation-Centrifugation
Technique (Ohms 1957, Allen et al. 1979)
iv. Density Gradient Centrifugation
(With Renografin-60)
v. Isolation of Spores from
Suspensions
n) Estimation of VAM Infectivity of Soils
o) Estimation of the Root Colonization Level
12. AIR AS A COMPONENT OF ENVIRONMENT
a) Atmosphere
i. Troposphere (0 to 6-17 km)
ii. Stratosphere (6 to 17-50 km)
iii. Mesosphere (50 to 85 km)
iv. Thermosphere (above 85 km)
b) The Air
i. Composition of Air
ii. Air Pollution
c) Causes of Air Pollution
i. Primary Pollutants
ii. Secondary Pollutants
iii. Natural Pollutants
iv. Artificial Pollutants
1. Stationery
Sources
2. Mobile
Sources
d) Effect of Air Pollutants
i. Effect of Air Pollutants on
Vegetation
e) Global Effects of Air Pollution
i. Green House Effect and Global
Warming
ii. Acid Rain
iii. Ozone Holes
iv. Heat Islands
f) Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials
g) Microbiology of Air
i. Microorganisms Found in Air
ii. Number of Microorganisms in Air
iii. Role of Microorganisms in Air
13. AIR: COLLECTION OF SAMPLES
a) Sampling Procedures
i. Collection Techniques for
Particulate
1. Gravity
Technique
2. Filtration
Technique
3. Inertia!
Technique
4.
Precipitation Techniques
ii. Collection Techniques and
Sampling Devices for Gaseous Pollutants
b) Absorption Sampling
c) Adsorption Sampling
d) Freeze Out or Condensation Sampling
e) Grab Sampling
14. AIR ANALYSIS: PHYSICAL
a) Measurement of Relative Humidity
b) Determination of Atmospheric Pressure
c) Determination of Wind Speed
d) Measurement of Wind direction
15. AIR ANALYSIS: CHEMICAL
a) Estimation of Carbon Dioxide
i. Lungs Zecondroff Appartus
b) Carbon Monoxide
i. Non-dispersive Infra-red Analyzer
ii. Gas Chromatographic Technique
iii. Electrochemical Cell Method
c) Sulphur Dioxide
i. Electrometric Method
ii. Conductimetric Method
iii. West-Gaeke Method
d) Particulate Matter
i. Filtration Method
ii. Electrostatic Precipitation
iii. Impaction Method
iv. Gravitational Method
e) Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitrogen Monoxide
f) Chemical Analysis of Hydrocarbons
i. Total Hydrocarbon
ii. Specific Hydrocarbons
g) Chemical Analysis of Ozone
i. Chemiluminescent Analysis
ii. UV Absorption Technique
h) Chemical Analysis of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)
i) Smoke Monitoring by Ringlemann-Charts
i. Method of use
16. AIR ANALYSIS: MICROBIOLOGICAL
a) Petri Dish Procedure
b) Enumeration and Differentiation of Total Particles in Air
c) Enumeration and Differentiation of Viable Particles in Air
17. APPENDIX 1: LABORATORY HELP
a) Analytical Chemistry
i. Qualitative Analysis
ii. Quantitative Analysis
b) Some basic Principles in Analytical Chemistry
i. Mass and Weight
ii. Atom and Atomic Weight
iii. Molecule and Molecular Weight
iv. Avogadro's Number
v. Equivalent Weight
vi. Standard Solution
vii. Strength (or Concentration) of
Solution
viii. Titration
ix. Equivalent Point or End Point
x. Indicator
xi. Ions and Ionisation
c) Preparation of Standard Solutions
i. Sodium Carbonate (Na2C03)
ii. Sodium Oxalate
iii. Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O)
iv. Succinic Acid (CH2-COOH)2
v. Oxalic Acid (COOH)2
vi. Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate
(KHC8 H404)
vii. Potassium Bi-Iodate
viii. Standard Solution of
Hydrochloric Acid
ix. Preparation of 0.1 N Sulphuric
Acid
x. Standard Solution of Sodium
Hydroxide
18. APPENDIX 2: ADVANCED ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
a) Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry
b) Continuous Flow Analysis
c) Ion Chromatography
d) Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
19. APPENDIX 3: COMMON COMMERCIAL CONCENTRATIONS OF ACIDS AND AMMONIUM
HYDROXIDE
20. REFERENCE
