Biofertilizers Technology

AUTHOR: Tanuja Singh & S. S. Purohit
PUBLISHER: Agrobios (India)
ISBN: 9788177543827
YEAR: 2008 - First Edition
PAGES: 389
SIZE: 14 X 21 X 2.25 cm.
BINDING: Hard
LANGUAGE: English

ABOUT THE BOOK: Biofertilizer is still an unclear term. It can be easily found that biofertilizers are identified as plant extract, composted urban wastes, and various microbial mixtures with unidentified constituents, and chemical fertilizer formulations supplemented with organic compounds. Likewise, the scientific literature has a very open interpretation of the term biofertilizer, representing everything from manures to plant extracts. However biofertilizer is most commonly referred to the use of soil microorganisms to increase the availability and uptake of mineral nutrients for plants. Therefore, it is necessary to define the term biofertilizer. There is a proposal that "biofertilizer be defined as a substance, contains living microorganisms which colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrient and/or growth stimulus to the target crop, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil.
Biofertilizers have definite advantage over chemical fertilizers. Chemical fertilizers supply over nitrogen whereas biofertilisers provide in addition to nitrogen certain growth promoting substances like hormones, vitamins, amino acids, etc., crops have to be provided with chemical fertilizers repeatedly to replenish the loss of nitrogen utilised for crop growth. On the other hand biofertilizers supply the nitrogen continuously throughout the entire period of crop growth in the field under favorable conditions.
The name itself is self explanatory. The fertilizers are used to improve the fertility of the land using biological wastes, hence the term biofertilizers, and biological wastes do not contain any chemicals which are detrimental to the living soil. They are extremely beneficial in enriching the soil with those microorganisms, which produce organic nutrients for the soil and help combat diseases. The farm produce does not contain traces of hazardous and poisonous materials. Thus those products are accepted across the world as Organic ones. Hence for organic farming the use of biofertilizers is mandatory.
The galaxy of biofertilizers are many. For example Phospho which releases insoluble phosphorus in soil and fix this phosphorus in clay minerals which is of great significance in agriculture. Similarly Rhizobacteria play important role in agriculture by inducing nitrogen fixings nodules on the root of legumes such as peas, beans clove and alfalfa. Azotobactor fixes the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and make it available to the plants. It protects the roots from other pathogens present in the soil. Composter or decomposing culture breaks down any organic matter such as dead plants farm yard waste, cattle waste etc. thereby increasing the soil productivity. Vermicompost is 100% pure eco-friendly organic fertilizer. This organic fertilizer has nitrogen phosphorus, potassium, organic carbon, sulphur, hormones, vitamins, enzymes and antibiotics which helps to improve the quality and quantity of yield. Biocompost is eco-friendly organic fertilizer which is prepared from the sugar industry waste material which is decomposed and enriched of with various plants and human friendly bacteria and fungi. Biocompost consists of nitrogen, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and various useful fungi like decomposing fungi which protects the plants from various soil borne disease and also help to increase soil fertility which results to a good quality product to the farmers. Therefore, biofertilizers have for long witnessed shifting fortunes in agriculture.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR'S:
1. Dr. Tanuja received her Bachelor's degree in Botany from Miranda House (D.U.), Masters degree in Botany from Delhi University, North Campus, specializing in Microbiology and Ph. D from Magadh University. She has 16 years of teaching experience and is presently working in the Department of Botany, B.M.D. College, Dayalpur, Vaishali, a constituent unit of B. R. Ambedkar Bihar University, Bihar. She has been the Convener of UGC sponsored National Seminar on Cultivation of Aromatic plants in Bihar and is actively engaged in the UGC funded projects. Her area of research interests are fermentation technology, aromatic and medicinal plants and environmental science. She contributes regularly to the professional literature of National/International status and has co-edited a book on 'The Cultivation of Aromatic Plants in Bihar'.

2. Dr. S. S. Purohit (b. July, 1948) obtained M. Sc. (Gold Medal) and Ph. D. from Udaipur University, Udaipur. He was visiting guest scientist in various foreign universities. He has 30 years of teaching experience of UG and PG students, specially Plant Physiology. He has guided 12 M. Phil and 4 Ph. D. students. He is well known writer and written about 30 books and 125 articles on various subjects of Botany. He left teaching in 2000 and joined Agrobios (India). Presently, he is the managing Director of Agrobios (India) and Editor, Agrobios News Letter.

CONTENTS:
1. Biofertilizers and Sustainable Agriculture
    a. What is Biofertilizers
    b. Need for Biofertilizers
    c. Types of Biofertilizers
        i. Groups of Biofertilizers
        ii. PGPR (Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria) as Biofertilizers
        iii. Phosphate Solubilizing Microbes
        iv. Mycorrhizae
            1. Azopirillum
            2. Azotobacter
            3. Rhizobium
            4. Sesbania
            5. Frankia
        v. Cyanobacteria (Blue Green Algae)
            1. Azolla
        vi. Role of Biofertilizers
        vii. History of Biofertilizer Research
        viii. Economic and Environmental Benefits
        ix. Development of Biofertilizer Industry
    d. Biofertilizers and Sustainable Agriculture
        i. Evolution of Sustainable Agriculture
        ii. Sustainable Livelihood
        iii. Making Sustainable Farming Systems
    e. Conclusion
2. Nitrogen Fixation
    a. Role of Nitrogen in the Biosphere
    b. The Nitrogen Cycle
        i. Steps in Nitrogen Cycle
        ii. Ammonification
        iii. Nitrification
        iv. Nitrate Reduction and Denitrification
    c. Nitrogen Converters in the Soil
    d. Diazotrophic Microorganisms
        i. Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    e. Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
        i. Microorganisms
    f. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
        i. Leguminous Nitrogen-fixing Plants
        ii. Non-leguminous Nitrogen-fixing Plants
        iii. Associations with Frankia
        iv. Cyanobacterial Associations
    g. Nitrogen Fixation
    h. Mechanism of Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
    i. Lectins
    j. Structure and Operation of Nitrogenase
        i. Nitrogenase Producing E. coli Cells
        ii. Mechanism of Nitrogenase Action
        iii. Nitrogenase Substrates Products
        iv. Proposed Steps of Nitrogenase Mechanism
    k. Electron Donors for Enzyme Nitrogease
    l. Electron Carriers for the Enzyme Nitrogenase
        i. Ferredoxins
        ii. Flavodoxins
    m. Organization of Nitrogen-fixation Genes
    n. Genetics of Frankia
        i. Cyanobacterial Genetics of Nitrogen Fixation.
        ii. Nod-Genes for Nodulation
        iii. Regulation of Nitrogen-fixation Genes
    o. Genetics of Symbiotic Diazotrophs
    p. Hydrogenase
        i. Transfer of nif-genes to Microorganisms
        ii. Transfer of nif-genes and Development of New Nitrogen-fixing Plants
    q. Regulation of Nitrogen Fixation
    r. Alternative Nitrogen Fixation Systems
    s. Siderophores and its role in N2 Fixation
3. Microbal Inoculants for Nitrogen Fixation
    a. Non-Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation
    b. Nitrogen Fixing Organisms and Plant Associations
    c. Azotobacter
        i. Derxia
        ii. Azomonas
        iii. Beijerinckia
        iv. Azospirillum
        v. Herbaspirillum
    d. Other Bacteria
        i. Blue Green Algae (BGA)
        ii. Growth and N2-fixation by BGA in Rice Fields
        iii. Asymbiotic BGA
        iv. Symbiotic BGA
            1. Anabaena
            2. Nostoc
        v. Symbiotic Actinomycete
            1. Frankia
            2. Actinorhizal Plants
            3. Isolation of Frankia
            4. Frankia Nodule
        vi. Symbiotic Bacteria
            1. Rhizobium
            2. Rhizobium in Root Nodule
            3. Agrobacterium (A. radiobacter, A. tumefacions)
            4. Structure and Function of Nodule
            5. Formation of Nodule in Leguminous Plants
            6. Leghaemoglobin
            7. Site of Nitrogen Fixation in Nodules
            8. Leguminous Plants / Rhizobiaceae Symbiosis
        vii. Interaction between Leguminous Plants and Rhizobia
            1. Mediated by Nod Factors
            2. Nod Regulators
    e. Distribution of Rhizobial Population
        i. Techniques to Enumerate Rhizobia
            1. Plate Count Technique
            2. Flourescent Antibody Technique (FAT)
            3. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA)
            4. Plant Infection Technique
            5. Growth System for MPN Methods
            6. Suitable Test Host for MPN Technique
            7. Rhizobium Culture
            8. Genetic Modifications in Rhizobium Strains
            9. Isolation and Identification
4. Rhizobium Biofertilizer
    a. Carriers For Rhizobium Inoculants
    b. Crop Response
        i. Factor Affecting Crop Response
        ii. Confirming Nodulation
    c. Field Methods for Identification of Plant Actually Fixing Nitrogen
    d. The Need to Inoculate
    e. Selecting and Handling Inoculants
    f. Inoculation
        i. Methods of Application
5. Application of Biofertilizers in Field Crops
    a. Methods of Application
        i. Seed Treatment
        ii. Seedling Root Dip
        iii. Soil Application
        iv. Precautions for Efficient Use
        v. Optimizing Nitrogen Fixation in NFS
        vi. Effective and Ineffective Strains
        vii. Establishment of Inoculated Rhizobium
    b. Field Trials with Biofertilizers
6. Production of Rhizobium Biofertilizer
    a. Selection of Strains
    b. Maintenance of Culture
    c. Carrier Materials and their Sterilization
        i. Suitable Nutrient Broth
        ii. Suitable Packing Material
        iii. Suitable Adhesive Material
        iv. Fermentation
        v. Rotary Shaker Method
        vi. Bioreactor
7. Azospirillum Biofertilizer
    a. Major Species
    b. Isolation
    c. Mass Multiplication
    d. Method of Inoculation
        i. Identification and Classification
    e. Conditions Needed for Successful Inoculation
    f. Crop Response
8. Azotobacter Biofertilizer
    a. Isolation
        i. Identification and Characteristics
    b. Mass Production
        i. Maintenance and Cultivation
        ii. Method of Application
        iii. Crop Response
    c. Methods of Application of Azospirillum and Azotobacter
9. Blue Green Algae and Azolla as Biofertilizer
    a. Distribution
    b. Isolation
    c. Mass Production
        i. Methods of Field Application
        ii. Crop Response
        iii. Factors Affecting Crop Response
        iv. Blue Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla
        v. Mass Production and Applications
        vi. Crop Response
        vii. Factors Affecting Response
        viii. BGA Production Technology
        ix. Trough Method
        x. Pit Method
        xi. Mass Multiplication of BGA in the Field
        xii. Dual Cropping of Azolla with Rice
    d. Azolla-Anabaena Symbiosis
        i. Multiplication of Azolla
            1. Propagation
            2. Cement Cisterns
            3. Mass Multiplication in Nursery Plots
        ii. Some Useful Tips for Successful Azolla Use
        iii. Enhanced Crop Production
10. Estimation of Nitrogen Fixation
    a. 15N Based Methods
    b. Nitrogen Balance Studies
    c. Acetylene Reduction Assay
    d. Acetylene Reduction Activity (ARA) of the Azospirillum
        i. Isolates
    e. Acetylene Reduction Activity in Roots
    f. Assay of 1SN by Mass Spectrometer
        i. Principles of Modern Mass Spectrometry
        ii. Quantifying Nitrogen Fixation in NFSs
        iii. Quantities of Nitrogen Fixed
    g. Factors Influencing Biological Nitrogen Fixation
        i. Biological Factors
        ii. Oxygen
        iii. Water Stress
        iv. Temperature
        v. Age
        vi. pH and Soil Nutrients
        vii. Combined Soil N
        viii. Salinity
        ix. Lack of Suitable Bacteria
    h. Recovering From Stress
        i. Nitrogen Fixation Research in India
11. Biological Mobilization of Phosphorus
    a. Forms of P Available in Soil
        i. P Availability Issue
        ii. Phosphate Solubilizing Microbes
            1. Advantages
            2. Mode of Action ofPSMs
            3. Mechanisms of Phosphate Solubilization
            4. Enzymes and P-solubilization
        iii. Effect of PSMs on Growth and P Economy
        iv. Duel Inoculation of P-solubilizers and Nitrogen Fixers
    b. Isolation
        i. Inoculant Production
    c. Crop Response
12. Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM)
    a. Roots as Sinks and Sources of Nutrients and Carbon in
        i. Agricultural Systems
        ii. Importance of Mycorrhiza
        iii. Benefits to Plants
        iv. Other Roles in Ecosystems
        v. Benefits to Humans
    b. Mycorrhizal Interactions with Plants and Soil Organisms in Sustainable Agroecosystem
        i. Symbiosis
            1. Parasitism
            2. Mutualism
            3. Commensalism
            4. Aegism
            5. Relative Size of the Partners
            6. Relative Position of the Partners
            7. Necessity of the Symbiosis to the Partners
            8. Duration and Stability of the Association
            9. Perpetuation of the Symbiosis
            10. Integration
        ii. Root System Form
    c. Soil and Site Factors Influencing Mycorrhizas
        i. Mycorrhizal Inoculum
        ii. Soil Disturbance
        iii. Soil Fertility
        iv. Adverse Soil Conditions
    d. Characteristics of Fungal Isolates
    e. Manipulating Mycorrhizal Fungi
    f. Types of Associations
    g. Types of Mycorrhiza
        i. Ectomycorrhiza
        ii. Ectendomycorrhiza
        iii. Endomycorrhiza/Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF)
        iv. Arbutoid Mycorrhiza
        v. Monotropoid Mycorrhiza
        vi. Ericoid Mycorrhiza
        vii. Orchidoid Mycorrhiza
        viii. Host Plants
        ix. Place of Availability of Mycorrhizal Plants
        x. Mycorrhizal Fungi
    h. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF)
        i. Establishment of Symbiosis
        ii. Classification of AMF
            1. Ectomycorrhizae (ECM)
            2. Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM)
        iii. How Mycorrhizas Work
        iv. Nutrient Depletion Zones
        v. Hyphal Activity
        vi. Mycorrhizal Dependency
        vii. Obligatorily Mycorrhizal Plants
        viii. Facultatively Mycorrhizal Plants
        ix. Nonmycorrhizal Plants
    i. Mycorrhizal Fungi and Pathogen Interaction
    j. Nitrogen Transfer in Mycorrhizal Plants
    k. Nitrogen Nutrition in Mycorrhizal Plants
            i. Forms of Nitrogen Used by Mycorrhizal Associations
            ii. Mycorrhizal Effects on Nodulation and Nitrogen Fixation
            iii. P Response Curves
    l. Inoculation Methods
        i. Trasplanted Crops
        ii. Plant Directly Sown in the Field
            1. Coating Seeds with VA Mycorrhizal Inoculum
            2. Mycorrhizal Pellets
            3. Fluid Drilling
            4. Inoculation in Furrows
            5. Pre-cropping
        iii. Appropriate VA Mycorrhizal Technology
            1. Transplanted Crops
            2. Field Sown Crops
    m. Conclusion
13. The Cyclic System of Nutrient Management
    a. Geographical Nutrient Transfer
        i. Natural Transfers (Nutrient Flows in Landscapes)
        ii. Nutrient Transfer into Cities
        iii. Export into Other Countries
    b. The Concern
        i. Future Nutrient Shortages
    c. From Nutrient Flows to Cycles
    d. Organic Farming and Waste Recycling
    e. The Cyclic System for Nutrient Management
        i. Minimizing Nutrient Losses
        ii. Changes in Soil Slope
        iii. Soil Cover
        iv. Harnessing Untapped Nutrient Sources
        v. Exploring Internal Nutrient Sources
        vi. Better Use of Nutrient Sources
            1. Soil Nutrient and Soil Fertility Aspects
            2. Optimum Soil Reaction
            3. Soil Organic Matter
            4. Organic Materials
            5. Crop Residues and Farm Manures
            6. Commercial and Industrial Waste Products
            7. Other Organic Fertilizers
        vii. Better Nutrient Management for Crops and Crop Rotations
            1. Adaptation of Crops to Nutrient Supply
            2. Adaptation of Crop Rotations to Nutrient Supply
        viii. Nutrient Management for Product Quality and Stress
            1. Resistance
            2. Higher Quality of Food and Fodder Products
            3. Nutrient Management of Grassland for Fodder Quality
            4. Higher Stress Resistance of Crops due to Better Nutrition
    f. Nutrient Management in Farming Systems
14. Laboratory Culture of Microbial Biofertilizers
    a. General Information
        i. Basic Rules
            1. Instruments
            2. Glasswares
            3. Other's Materials
        ii. Other Instructions
            1. Drying and Wrapping of Glasswares
            2. Plugging of Culture Tubes and Flasks
            3. Pipettes
            4. Aseptic Technique
            5. Glasswares
            6. Instruments and Other Equipments Used
            7. Microscope
            8. Heamocytometer
        iii. Culture Medium
            1. Preparation of Nutritional Media
            2. Culture Medium for Rhizobium
            3. Culture Medium for Azospirillum (Nitrogen free semisolid malate medium)
            4. Culture Medium for Azotobacter [(Waksman Medium No. 77 (N-free Mannitol Agar Medium)]
            5. Composition of Diluted Cane Juice Medium
            6. Composition of Semisolid LGIP Medium
            7. Culture Medium for Blue Green Algae
            8. Medium No: 2
    b. Azorhizobium caulinodans From The Nodules of Sesbania rostrata
        i. Yeast Extract Mannitol Agar Medium
        ii. Medium for Nitrogen Fixing and Facultative Anaerobes
        iii. Dilution Medium
        iv. Modified Hungate's Medium (g/l)
        v. Medium for Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
        vi. Medium for Pink Pigmented Facultative Methylotrophs from Phyllosphere (AMS) Medium
        vii. Medium for Bacillus thuringiensis
        viii. Medium for Pseudomonas fluorescens
        ix. Medium for Trichoderma
    c. Phosphorus Solubilizing Microorganisms
        i. Preparation of Reagents
    d. Isolation and Enumeration of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Spores
15. Mass Production of Biofertilizers
    a. Culturing of Microorganisms
    b. Composition of Media
        i. Yeast Extract Mannitol Congored Agar Medium
        ii. Dobereiner's Nitrogen Free Malic acid Semi-solid Medium
        iii. Nutrient Glucose Broth
        iv. Sterilizing the Growth Medium in the Fermenter
        v. Mass Culturing in Fermenter
        vi. Processing of Carrier Material
        vii. Mixing of Carrier Material with Broth Culture
        viii. Polythene Bag Specification
        ix. Storage
    c. Mass Production of Fungal Inoculants
        i. Small Scale Production
        ii. Large Scale Production
    d. Mass Production of Azolla
        i. Mass Production of Azolla Spore Inoculum
    e. Mass Production of Blue Green Algae (Cyanobacteria)
    f. Mass Production of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
        i. SoilLess Culture
        ii. Carrier Based AM Inoculum
16. Quality Control in Bioinoculants
    a. Rhizobium
        i. BIS Specifications for Rhizobium Inoculant
    b. Azospirillum
        i. Quality Control Specifications Developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for Asozpirillum Inoculant
    c. Phosphobacteria
    d. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for Carrier – based Biofertilizers
17. Perspectives
    a. Constraints in Biofertilzer Use
        i. Production Constraints
            1. Unavailability of Appropriate and Efficient Strains
            2. Unavailability of a Suitable Carrier
            3. Mutation during Fermentation
            4. Lack of Standards in Packaging
        ii. Market Level Constraints
            1. Lack of Awareness of Farmer
            2. Inadequate and Inexperienced Staff
            3. Lack of Quality Assurance
            4. Seasonal and Unassured Demand
            5. Limited Scope for Marketing
        iii. Resource Constraints
            1. Limited Resources Generation for BF Production
            2. Limited Risk Taking Capacity of Farmers
    b. Field Level Constraints
            1. Soil and Climatic Factors
            2. Native Microbial Population
            3. Faulty Inoculation Techniques
            4. Crop Management
            5. Quality Control
    c. Research and Development Needs
        i. Widening Research Base
        ii. Screening New Efficient Strains
        iii. Improvement in Production Technology
        iv. Preparation of Biofertilizer Map
        v. Quality Assurance
        vi. Improving Distribution System
        vii. Improving Technical Support System
        viii. Institutional Support for Research and Development
    d. Quality Control
    e. Promotional Strategies
    f. Future Thrusts
18. Selected Bibliography
19. Subject Index